From the SWISS BULLETIN: Evidence of mules in ancient times, Part 2
We hope you enjoy Part 2 of the translated historical Longears article written by Elke Stadler, originally printed in German in the SWISS BULLETIN that comes to us from Switzerland. More articles to follow!
By Elke Stadler
Further evidence of mules in ancient times is shown by finds from various archaeological excavations. The identification of hybrids is more and more illuminated by archaeological research. The finds of mule bones on civil and military sites are scattered throughout Europe.
In Pompeii
Pompeii was an ancient city located in the modern commune of Pompei near Naples in the Campania region of Italy. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pompeii
In the stable of the house of “Casa Amanti” the remains of equine skeletons were found, five in total, including four donkeys between 4 and 9 years old and one male mule between 8 and 9 years old. The equines were probably used as pack animals for the transport of pastries. An analysis of the food remains in the stable was also taken.
Left: Plan of a horse stable in Pompei, Anthopozoologica 31,2000, pp. 119-123.
Right: Pompeii, Casa Amanti, houses 6 and 7, Insula 12, region IX, Genovese A, Cocca T.
Pompeii, Insula 9, house 12, room 4, region I, (casa amarantus)
(Berry J., The conditions of domestic life in pompii in AD 79: A case study of houses 11 and 12, insula 9, region I, Papers of the British School at Rome)
In the stable on this area, probably originally a “Kubikulum” (side room), the skeletons of a mule and a dog were found. On the northern wall, remains of wood can be seen, which indicate a feeding rack. The palynological examination of the plant remains showed a variety of grasses and weeds as well as cereals, olives and nuts, indicating forage, litter and dung. Two fortified iron rings near the mule’s head suggest that it was tied up at the time of death.
The large number of amphorae in the “Impluvium” (water collection basin) of the nearby atrium (Roman dwelling house), as well as the remains of a broken amphora in the stable, indicate that the mule was intended to transport amphorae to the city. The remains of a dilapidated “Caupona” (bar, sales room) in the adjacent Insula 11 indicate commercial activity. An inscription on the western front (AMARANTUS POMPEIANUS ROG (AT) and three painted inscriptions, one on the neck (EX POMPEI AMARANTI) and two on the belly of several amphorae found in the building, indicate that Amarantus was a wine merchant, which required the keeping of a mule to transport the amphorae.
Great Britain, London
The mule jaw was found in a landfill. It dates from the Roman period (period II, phase 3) around 125-160 A.D. Age at death of the animal: more than 5 years, perhaps between 11 and 14 years.
The age determination is inaccurate, as the jaw is broken at the level of the incisors. The age can only be determined more accurately on the basis of the wear and tear of the incisors. It was also not possible to determine the sex because of the missing canines, the sex index. They are more developed in males than in females. The pronounced wear in an area of the jawbone (circle) is probably the result of the damaging pressure from a halter or muzzle.
Examination of the molar profile of the jaw made it possible to determine the London jaw more reliably than mule jaws. It has a very accentuated “V” shape of the lateral cavities of the first molars (cheek teeth). The comparison with the lower jaw of another mule (Dangstetten) shows a strong similarity.
According to Armitage P, Chapman C, Roman Mules, The London Archaeologist, 3/13,1979, S. 339-359)
Kalkriese, Niedersachsen, Germany
The finding region Kalkriese is an area in northwest of Germany, where large quantities of Roman archaeological finds were made. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalkriese
Archaeologists have identified the bones of eight horses and about thirty mules on the site of the Battle of Kalkriese, which took place in 9 A.D., including two skeletons in good condition at the trenches dug by the Germans to capture the Roman vanguard. The first mule was found in the trench, its bones (head, neck and shoulders) and its harnesses are in adequate position. The animal was therefore not completely exposed to natural decay (which explains the good osteological and anatomical preservation conditions).
The mule had an iron bridle and harness with metal elements and stones, and a bronze bell with iron clapper. The inside of the bell was stuffed with oat straw wrapped around the clapper so that the bells were not heard in enemy territory. The growth of the roots on the stems indicated late summer – early autumn, which made it possible to determine the date of the ambush around September.
In 1999 the fragmentary remains of a second 4-year-old mule were found. It carried a smaller bronze bell and an iron bridle. The animal died of a broken neck, probably while trying to climb the German wall in the general panic of the fight.
According to: Rost A, Wilbers -Rost S; Waffen auf dem Schlachtfeld von Kalkriese, Gladius XXX; 2010, pp. 117-135 and Harnecker J, Franzius G, Kalkriese 4th Catalogue of Roman Finds from the Oberesch. Die Schnitte 1 bis 22; Römisch-Germanische Forschungen vol. 66. 2008 and Wells P.S., Die Schlacht, die Rom stoppte, Kaiser Augustus, Arminius und das Abschlachten der Legionen im Teutoburger Wald, 2003)
Carnuntum, Austria
It is the most important and most extensively researched ancient excavation site in Austria 28 mi east of Vienna. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnuntum
Horses and mule bones were discovered in the outer ditch and in pits on the edge of the first ditch of this Roman legionary camp. Four mules could be identified from the remains. The sex could be determined based on the development of the canines on the lower jaws. They were only male animals. Two of them died at the age of 6-7 years, the other two at about 15-17 years. The age is estimated on the basis of the abrasion of the teeth. Since mule teeth are harder than those of horses, the age had been underestimated and had to be reassessed.
The height at the withers was determined in relation to the length of the bones found. It was approximately between not less than 140 cm and maximum 155 cm. Apart from one mule, the other three suffered from diseases of the limbs and/or the spine caused by frequent heavy loading. A pathological change in the spinal column of a mule also indicates this. One shows a pathology (exostosis) on the jaw, which is caused by repeated rubbing of a bit or harness.
According to: Kunst G. K., Archäozoologischer Nachweis für Equidengebrauch, Geschlechtsstruktur und Mortalität in einem neuartigen Hilfskastell (Carnuntum-Petronell, Niederösterreich), Anthropozoologica 31; Ibex J. Mt. Ecol 5.2000
Weissenburg, Bavaria, Germany, Biriciana Roman Fort
The Roman fort at Weissenburg, called Biriciana in ancient times, is a former Roman Ala castellum, which is a UNESCO World Heritage Site located near the Upper Germanic-Rhaetian Limes. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biriciana
Four skeletal remains of mules were found during an excavation in this Roman camp. The age was determined to be 160 AD after the discovery of eleven coins. They were found in a bag that was left with the mules. The authors raise the question of a possible local breeding or traditional import of mules from Mediterranean countries. When examining the teeth of an 8-year-old mule, it was found that the food in the mule’s environment must have changed until the time of its death. The animal spent part of its life at high altitude, according to the proximity of the camp, probably in the Alps. The investigations show that the animal must have been born and bred in northern Italy. It must have been used for work in the Alps for a while and later on until the end of its life near Fort Weissenburg.
According to Berger T. E., Peters J., Grupe G. Life history of a mule (ca. 160 AD) from the Roman fort Biriciana/Weissenburg (Upper Bavaria), as revealed by serial stable isotope analysis of dental tissue, International Journal of Osteoarchaeology Volume 20, Issue 2, March/April 2010, pp. 158-171.
Further Sources: https://leg8.fr/armee-romaine/mulet-du-ier-siecle-qui-es-tu
Being asked to judge a show is both an honor and a tremendous responsibility. Just being asked to judge indicates that you have a reputation for being a knowledgeable and respected person in your field of expertise. Accepting the invitation to judge means that you are willing to share this knowledge and expertise with people who may, or may not, accept IT or you! Exhibitors can say that each show reflects only one “man’s” (judge’s) opinion, so not to worry if you don’t do well. As an exhibitor and a judge, this bothers me a little.
he exhibitors and not by the personal opinions of the judge. The judge should be a catalyst toward better learning and performance. He or she should try to make their knowledge readily available to inquiring exhibitors and be diplomatic enough about its delivery to inspire and encourage exhibitors to improve their skills. In turn, the exhibitors will be better equipped to exhibit their animals in a favorable light to the public at large and to grow into knowledgeable experts themselves with time and experience.
objective in his decisions and be able to back them up with reasonable and knowledgeable explanations that will inspire exhibitors to work harder and learn more. He should have a congenial attitude that invites exhibitors to question and learn freely without intimidation.
credence to his final decisions. In my opinion, judges should assist in helping exhibitors realize their full potential by helping them to improve their skills through fair, just, and educated decisions. A good judge needs to serve the idea of better learning for the sake of health, wealth, happiness, and above all, safety! A judge can be the catalyst toward learning and self-satisfaction, or he can be the catalyst toward defeat and discouragement. I prefer to be the former, encouraging exhibitors to come to me with their questions and also encouraging them to learn from each other. In our Longears industry, the ideal scenario would be to have exhibitors work at home and with each other perfecting their Mulemanship skills, bring those exhibitions of skills to a show to be judged, then return home with a feeling of accomplishment and more things to work on until the next show and the next judge. To perpetuate the learning process and to continue to learn and improve himself should be a judge’s main objective.
the mules and donkeys reflected this exceptional conditioning, care and handling. The show itself was obviously handled carefully and with attention to detail, leaving little margin for error or dispute. It is not really too surprising that a group such as this was able to elicit tremendous support from sponsors in their area. Their hard work and hospitality is to be appreciated and congratulated. It said a lot for the kind of people that we have in our industry – that we can all have a good time learning and showing together with our marvelous Longears, amateurs and professionals, exhibitors and judges alike! The whole idea is that each and every one of us has something to offer and something we can learn. To attend a show and to learn something new is to return home renewed and fulfilled, even though you haven’t won. To win without this mutual admiration, goodwill and learning is just another hollow victory!
Everyone learned something at the Oregon Mr. Longears Mule Skinner Classic, including the judge! Dick and Debbie Cress and Alan and Elaine Case are to be heartily congratulated for their exceptional efforts in putting on a successful show and for taking wonderful care of this judge! Thank you to all of you who gave your time and efforts to work on the show and make it run as smoothly as it did! Thank you Larry and Fran Howe for coming with me from Colorado to help judge the packing classes and for helping to Ring Steward and to Gary Hodges for his fine photography! My deepest congratulations go to all the exhibitors for a superb effort. Keep up the good work! Thanks to our announcer Roger Harrison. And a very special congratulations to all of our Mule Skinner Classic Champions!
When I was growing up, my grandmother constantly reminded me of the importance of good manners. She would say, “You will never get anywhere of any consequence in this world without good manners!” And she would add, “Without good posture and proper dress, you won’t live long enough to enjoy it!” She made me read Emily Post’s Book of Etiquette from cover to cover. In retrospect, although reading the entire book was a real chore, the respect for good manners that she passed on to me has been an extremely valuable gem in my training experience with equines.
I think that the concept of combining equine training techniques with lessons in good manners is one that many people do not pay as much attention to these days as they probably should. Putting an equine in good posture with respect to his physical comfort is the most obvious form of good manners when communicating with your equine. When you apply the elements of good manners during the training process, you facilitate body and verbal language that equines really appreciate, and when you apply your own good manners and teach good manners to your equine from the very beginning of the training process, you can continue to move forward much more easily than if you do not incorporate good manners between you and your equine. When you run into resistance from your equine, take it as a red flag that you’re missing something in your communication with your animal and change your approach.
If your equine spends most of his time in the pasture, the good manners of promptness and reliability on your part are critical, as it is the only time you will have during the day to really spend time with him, and he’ll count on you to show up on time each day. What you’ll get out of being prompt at feeding times is a self-discipline that will carry over into everything that you do and will determine whether or not you are a reliable partner in the relationship with your equine. When you feed the oats mixture at night and none in the morning, it gives your equine a reason to come to you after breakfast when you offer oats to catch him, and gives him a reason to come back in off the pasture after being turned out for only a short time in the spring when pasture time needs to be limited. Doing something when it is convenient rather than considering the equine’s need for reliability in the trainer is a recipe for chaos and causes anxiety in both the equine and the trainer. However, having a predictable structure to your routine will allow both you and your equine to remain calm and clear in your communication with each other.
If you want your equine to come to you, rather than chasing him, simply stand at the gate or doorway and ask him to come to you, offering the oats reward when he does. If you are kind, patient and consistent, he will most likely always oblige you.
the others for standing back after you have rewarded the one you want for allowing you to halter him. This will also avoid anxiety in the one you are haltering, because he knows you will protect him and wave back the others who might otherwise crowd him or kick at him. The ones you wave back will learn that if they comply, a reward is coming.
Being in good posture feels good to all of us and allows all the organs in the body to work correctly. When one is comfortable and amply prepared for physical activity, it is always more enjoyable. This is no different for equines. When you don’t consistently pay attention to your own good posture, neither will your equine pay attention to his. His movements will tend to be difficult and unpleasant, and the relationship between the two of you may begin to erode. But when your equine is encouraged to be in good posture during training, it feels good to him and, over time, will become his normal way of moving and resting. He will also be grateful for your kindness and consideration, and he will look forward to the activities he gets to do and the time he spends with you. When you pay attention to your own good posture right from the beginning of leading training and every time you work with your equine, he will be able to mirror your good posture. The result will be his own good posture, which will result in more comfort for him.
There will be times when it is necessary to employ negative reinforcement to stop bad behaviors that can escalate and become truly dangerous behaviors before they become persistent and uncontrollable. These corrections, which are covered in DVD #2 of my 
Today, we have more time to spend training our equines and cultivating our own riding skills. In most cases, the choice of tack is no longer of necessity, but of choice. Fashion, in any country, is supposed to be a statement of individuality and identity. The Western style of dress and tack suggests a hearty, rugged individual, surrounded by wide open spaces, using his equine as a partner for work. English attire paints a picture of dignity, reserve and concentrated skill. The Western image is a wonderfully romantic and picturesque way of seeing oneself, but it really doesn’t allow us the opportunity to improve our equestrian skills to the maximum. Western style riding is as limited as its uses. The smaller English saddle, made with a lot less leather, allows us to feel our equine’s body more closely (with the added stability of the stirrups) while we learn and exercise our bodies to become more harmonious with our mounts. As we can feel our equine more closely, so can he feel better the cues that we to give him. Thus, he can respond more accurately to our commands. However, most men don’t feel comfortable wearing “Sissy Pants” and riding in a “Sissy Saddle”—it just isn’t macho!
One Saturday morning, I finished a lesson with one of my students when Gary strolled into the indoor arena and announced that he was willing to give the English saddle a try, but that we would never get him into a pair of those “Sissy Pants!” “Fair enough,” I said, and brought my student’s horse around for him to ride. Getting on was a bit of a struggle, and exercises at the walk went really well, but as soon as the horse began to trot, Gary started bouncing. He was about to lose his balance, so he grabbed the rail to steady himself. The only problem was the rail stayed where it was and the horse kept going, leaving Gary dangling behind on the fence! I thought we would never stop laughing – he looked so ridiculous! Our macho man didn’t have the balance he thought he had!
After a while Gary decided that English riding was, in fact, the best way to train. However, he still wasn’t too interested in “watching cement set” or doing Dressage tests. We decided after two years to start showing in Combined Training with the horses. We signed up for the second day of a two-phase show, not realizing that we would be asked to ride our Dressage tests the same day that we jumped. Two days before the show, Gary discovered that he would have to ride Training Level Test 1 at 9:00 A.M. the day of the show. We reviewed the test the day before the show, thinking that if all else failed I could read the test to him when he rode. Sunday morning, Gary was feeling tired, but confident. I took my place at “B” and prepared to read for him when the announcer explained that only United States Dressage Federation tests could have a reader, but not the same in Combined Training. Gary’s face turned ashen. I climbed back into the stands as he warmed up for his test… at the walk… lost in space! He stopped short below me and quietly said, “Meredith, will you please come here.” I ran down to see what the trouble was. “I can’t remember anything… I can’t do this!” he worried emphatically. I quickly explained the pattern. Gary’s first Dressage test ever in his first Combined Training show and he emerged in third place with a mule in the Elementary Division against 8 horses. Was he ever thrilled!
