From the SWISS BULLETIN: Evidence of mules in ancient times, Part 2
We hope you enjoy Part 2 of the translated historical Longears article written by Elke Stadler, originally printed in German in the SWISS BULLETIN that comes to us from Switzerland. More articles to follow!
By Elke Stadler
Further evidence of mules in ancient times is shown by finds from various archaeological excavations. The identification of hybrids is more and more illuminated by archaeological research. The finds of mule bones on civil and military sites are scattered throughout Europe.
In Pompeii
Pompeii was an ancient city located in the modern commune of Pompei near Naples in the Campania region of Italy. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pompeii
In the stable of the house of “Casa Amanti” the remains of equine skeletons were found, five in total, including four donkeys between 4 and 9 years old and one male mule between 8 and 9 years old. The equines were probably used as pack animals for the transport of pastries. An analysis of the food remains in the stable was also taken.
Left: Plan of a horse stable in Pompei, Anthopozoologica 31,2000, pp. 119-123.
Right: Pompeii, Casa Amanti, houses 6 and 7, Insula 12, region IX, Genovese A, Cocca T.
Pompeii, Insula 9, house 12, room 4, region I, (casa amarantus)
(Berry J., The conditions of domestic life in pompii in AD 79: A case study of houses 11 and 12, insula 9, region I, Papers of the British School at Rome)
In the stable on this area, probably originally a “Kubikulum” (side room), the skeletons of a mule and a dog were found. On the northern wall, remains of wood can be seen, which indicate a feeding rack. The palynological examination of the plant remains showed a variety of grasses and weeds as well as cereals, olives and nuts, indicating forage, litter and dung. Two fortified iron rings near the mule’s head suggest that it was tied up at the time of death.
The large number of amphorae in the “Impluvium” (water collection basin) of the nearby atrium (Roman dwelling house), as well as the remains of a broken amphora in the stable, indicate that the mule was intended to transport amphorae to the city. The remains of a dilapidated “Caupona” (bar, sales room) in the adjacent Insula 11 indicate commercial activity. An inscription on the western front (AMARANTUS POMPEIANUS ROG (AT) and three painted inscriptions, one on the neck (EX POMPEI AMARANTI) and two on the belly of several amphorae found in the building, indicate that Amarantus was a wine merchant, which required the keeping of a mule to transport the amphorae.
Great Britain, London
The mule jaw was found in a landfill. It dates from the Roman period (period II, phase 3) around 125-160 A.D. Age at death of the animal: more than 5 years, perhaps between 11 and 14 years.
The age determination is inaccurate, as the jaw is broken at the level of the incisors. The age can only be determined more accurately on the basis of the wear and tear of the incisors. It was also not possible to determine the sex because of the missing canines, the sex index. They are more developed in males than in females. The pronounced wear in an area of the jawbone (circle) is probably the result of the damaging pressure from a halter or muzzle.
Examination of the molar profile of the jaw made it possible to determine the London jaw more reliably than mule jaws. It has a very accentuated “V” shape of the lateral cavities of the first molars (cheek teeth). The comparison with the lower jaw of another mule (Dangstetten) shows a strong similarity.
According to Armitage P, Chapman C, Roman Mules, The London Archaeologist, 3/13,1979, S. 339-359)
Kalkriese, Niedersachsen, Germany
The finding region Kalkriese is an area in northwest of Germany, where large quantities of Roman archaeological finds were made. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalkriese
Archaeologists have identified the bones of eight horses and about thirty mules on the site of the Battle of Kalkriese, which took place in 9 A.D., including two skeletons in good condition at the trenches dug by the Germans to capture the Roman vanguard. The first mule was found in the trench, its bones (head, neck and shoulders) and its harnesses are in adequate position. The animal was therefore not completely exposed to natural decay (which explains the good osteological and anatomical preservation conditions).
The mule had an iron bridle and harness with metal elements and stones, and a bronze bell with iron clapper. The inside of the bell was stuffed with oat straw wrapped around the clapper so that the bells were not heard in enemy territory. The growth of the roots on the stems indicated late summer – early autumn, which made it possible to determine the date of the ambush around September.
In 1999 the fragmentary remains of a second 4-year-old mule were found. It carried a smaller bronze bell and an iron bridle. The animal died of a broken neck, probably while trying to climb the German wall in the general panic of the fight.
According to: Rost A, Wilbers -Rost S; Waffen auf dem Schlachtfeld von Kalkriese, Gladius XXX; 2010, pp. 117-135 and Harnecker J, Franzius G, Kalkriese 4th Catalogue of Roman Finds from the Oberesch. Die Schnitte 1 bis 22; Römisch-Germanische Forschungen vol. 66. 2008 and Wells P.S., Die Schlacht, die Rom stoppte, Kaiser Augustus, Arminius und das Abschlachten der Legionen im Teutoburger Wald, 2003)
Carnuntum, Austria
It is the most important and most extensively researched ancient excavation site in Austria 28 mi east of Vienna. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnuntum
Horses and mule bones were discovered in the outer ditch and in pits on the edge of the first ditch of this Roman legionary camp. Four mules could be identified from the remains. The sex could be determined based on the development of the canines on the lower jaws. They were only male animals. Two of them died at the age of 6-7 years, the other two at about 15-17 years. The age is estimated on the basis of the abrasion of the teeth. Since mule teeth are harder than those of horses, the age had been underestimated and had to be reassessed.
The height at the withers was determined in relation to the length of the bones found. It was approximately between not less than 140 cm and maximum 155 cm. Apart from one mule, the other three suffered from diseases of the limbs and/or the spine caused by frequent heavy loading. A pathological change in the spinal column of a mule also indicates this. One shows a pathology (exostosis) on the jaw, which is caused by repeated rubbing of a bit or harness.
According to: Kunst G. K., Archäozoologischer Nachweis für Equidengebrauch, Geschlechtsstruktur und Mortalität in einem neuartigen Hilfskastell (Carnuntum-Petronell, Niederösterreich), Anthropozoologica 31; Ibex J. Mt. Ecol 5.2000
Weissenburg, Bavaria, Germany, Biriciana Roman Fort
The Roman fort at Weissenburg, called Biriciana in ancient times, is a former Roman Ala castellum, which is a UNESCO World Heritage Site located near the Upper Germanic-Rhaetian Limes. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biriciana
Four skeletal remains of mules were found during an excavation in this Roman camp. The age was determined to be 160 AD after the discovery of eleven coins. They were found in a bag that was left with the mules. The authors raise the question of a possible local breeding or traditional import of mules from Mediterranean countries. When examining the teeth of an 8-year-old mule, it was found that the food in the mule’s environment must have changed until the time of its death. The animal spent part of its life at high altitude, according to the proximity of the camp, probably in the Alps. The investigations show that the animal must have been born and bred in northern Italy. It must have been used for work in the Alps for a while and later on until the end of its life near Fort Weissenburg.
According to Berger T. E., Peters J., Grupe G. Life history of a mule (ca. 160 AD) from the Roman fort Biriciana/Weissenburg (Upper Bavaria), as revealed by serial stable isotope analysis of dental tissue, International Journal of Osteoarchaeology Volume 20, Issue 2, March/April 2010, pp. 158-171.
Further Sources: https://leg8.fr/armee-romaine/mulet-du-ier-siecle-qui-es-tu
No other was as loving, affectionate, and willing as Zee! His ground training went smoothly and he was trained to breed in hand with no difficulties. Clients were exceptionally pleased with his offspring and he went on to become a star. Zee was actually broke to ride while shooting the donkey training videos for the Training Mules and Donkeys video series. Zee’s career soared when the videos were revised for television and he obtained a starring role in the making of the Discovery Channel’s “The Ultimate Horse.” If he was born handsome, he grew to be even more magnificent. In adulthood, he matured to 15.2 hands sporting the shiniest black coat and incredibly good conformation for a Mammoth donkey.
When I saw him standing so depressed, I thought about the years that went into his making and hoped this wouldn’t be more than a mild colic. We called our vet who came out and did a complete checkup. He said he wasn’t really sure what was going on with him, but it wasn’t colic and after a week with no change, he suggested that we take him to Colorado State Veterinary Teaching Hospital for further examination. Trooper that he was, Zee loaded easily, but it was evident that he was in distress.
Zee was presented to the Colorado State Veterinary Hospital in Fort Collins with a history of being off his feed for almost a week. At the hospital, they did a barrage of testing and diagnosed him with “idiopathic hematuria and interstitial nephritis.” At this point his prognosis was only fair. Physical exam findings and laboratory results revealed that Zee initially was presented with “signs of mild hematuria and azotemia (decreased renal function). His kidney enzymes were increased in his blood and he had an inflammatory complete blood count. He passed blood-tinged manure on several occasions, but this resolved itself. He was treated with antibiotics, anti-ulcer medications and intravenous fluids. Over the course of his hospitalization, his attitude and appetite improved as his azotemia improved. He was removed from intravenous fluids when his creatinine stabilized at about three.”
I told Little Jack Horner that this day he would have a very important mission. He was the best choice for the blood transfusion to his grandson. L.J. seemed to understand and gave me no trouble when I loaded him into the trailer and took him to the vet hospital. When we arrived, they asked if we needed to sedate him. All I had to do was look at him to know he was going to be a trooper, too. No sedation was necessary. L.J. stood like the champion he was while they extracted pints and pints of blood from him. I let L.J. know how grateful I was for his contribution to his grandson’s health. He was quietly appreciative.
We monitored Zee very closely for the next year and he steadily improved. We can really only guess what caused all this, but the most reasonable assumption would be that he wrenched his back after covering a mare, pinched the blood supply to the kidneys and caused a secondary infection. Manipulation and acupuncture by the equine chiropractor relieved the pressure and promoted healing. There was a great deal of trauma to his body and we still weren’t sure he would really make it back to normal with his kidneys being so compromised, but did make it through and was happy and healthy for several more years. You would never know he had been through so much.
Being asked to judge a show is both an honor and a tremendous responsibility. Just being asked to judge indicates that you have a reputation for being a knowledgeable and respected person in your field of expertise. Accepting the invitation to judge means that you are willing to share this knowledge and expertise with people who may, or may not, accept IT or you! Exhibitors can say that each show reflects only one “man’s” (judge’s) opinion, so not to worry if you don’t do well. As an exhibitor and a judge, this bothers me a little.
he exhibitors and not by the personal opinions of the judge. The judge should be a catalyst toward better learning and performance. He or she should try to make their knowledge readily available to inquiring exhibitors and be diplomatic enough about its delivery to inspire and encourage exhibitors to improve their skills. In turn, the exhibitors will be better equipped to exhibit their animals in a favorable light to the public at large and to grow into knowledgeable experts themselves with time and experience.
objective in his decisions and be able to back them up with reasonable and knowledgeable explanations that will inspire exhibitors to work harder and learn more. He should have a congenial attitude that invites exhibitors to question and learn freely without intimidation.
credence to his final decisions. In my opinion, judges should assist in helping exhibitors realize their full potential by helping them to improve their skills through fair, just, and educated decisions. A good judge needs to serve the idea of better learning for the sake of health, wealth, happiness, and above all, safety! A judge can be the catalyst toward learning and self-satisfaction, or he can be the catalyst toward defeat and discouragement. I prefer to be the former, encouraging exhibitors to come to me with their questions and also encouraging them to learn from each other. In our Longears industry, the ideal scenario would be to have exhibitors work at home and with each other perfecting their Mulemanship skills, bring those exhibitions of skills to a show to be judged, then return home with a feeling of accomplishment and more things to work on until the next show and the next judge. To perpetuate the learning process and to continue to learn and improve himself should be a judge’s main objective.
the mules and donkeys reflected this exceptional conditioning, care and handling. The show itself was obviously handled carefully and with attention to detail, leaving little margin for error or dispute. It is not really too surprising that a group such as this was able to elicit tremendous support from sponsors in their area. Their hard work and hospitality is to be appreciated and congratulated. It said a lot for the kind of people that we have in our industry – that we can all have a good time learning and showing together with our marvelous Longears, amateurs and professionals, exhibitors and judges alike! The whole idea is that each and every one of us has something to offer and something we can learn. To attend a show and to learn something new is to return home renewed and fulfilled, even though you haven’t won. To win without this mutual admiration, goodwill and learning is just another hollow victory!
Everyone learned something at the Oregon Mr. Longears Mule Skinner Classic, including the judge! Dick and Debbie Cress and Alan and Elaine Case are to be heartily congratulated for their exceptional efforts in putting on a successful show and for taking wonderful care of this judge! Thank you to all of you who gave your time and efforts to work on the show and make it run as smoothly as it did! Thank you Larry and Fran Howe for coming with me from Colorado to help judge the packing classes and for helping to Ring Steward and to Gary Hodges for his fine photography! My deepest congratulations go to all the exhibitors for a superb effort. Keep up the good work! Thanks to our announcer Roger Harrison. And a very special congratulations to all of our Mule Skinner Classic Champions!
Pierre Bovier tied the rope around the iron bar that follows the wall; with the back of his hand he hit his mule on the back, as a sign of his friendship. He pulled a crackling piece of hay out of the oat sack, took his two cheeses under his arms and walked away. It was still winter up there, no relief was to be seen anywhere; dirty snow, half melted from the wind, covered the whole slope with a lifeless blanket. Perhaps the young grain’s stalks were already trembling beneath him. The grass sounded like the call of spring. The roots trembled in the frosty earth. Impatience ate the souls of the people. But the plain shone in the bright spring light. Pierre Bovier saw spring from his village Euseigne. Every day he watched for a long time the triangle of sap-laden earth between the sloping columns of the valley entrance. He would have loved to dig his working hands into the humid cold of the revived vines. He stretched his head, he looked and looked. Then he couldn’t stand it any longer. He could no longer stay in this house surrounded by death. He took his mule and he went away. So he went down to the valley and pulled his animal by the reins. The mule stretched his neck towards spring. Two small cheeses hung in the oat sack. He 
would sell this cheese, he would pay his debts to the bank. Two twenty-franc notes, a few glasses of wine to drink with one he meets in the bustling city before climbing back up to his village. This is our life. The reins are stretched, the mule hurries forward. Now Pierre Bovier is looking for a place in the city to put up his cheese. It is wonderfully warm. The sun makes its bright spots dance on the roadsides, the light stops on the groups of women, hangs on the yellow wicker baskets dangling from its arms. In the fishmonger’s display the sun delicately silvered the scales, sticking tinsel gold into the fur of the thick rabbits that are destined for the cooker. “What is the cheese?” “Twenty-five francs a piece.” The deal was closed, and Pierre Bovier walked straight to the bank, pulled out of his pocket a green, dirty envelope; paid. When he was back on the street he suddenly felt a strong thirst at the bottom of his throat and he decided, to satisfy it immediately.
It struck eleven o’clock. The landlady refused them the last half liter. So they had no choice but to leave. They rose and were outraged at this heartless creature, that had placed them in front of the door, stumbled between the tables, swayed down the street in all its width, finally trusted the walls, and when the walls stopped, they supported each other’s disturbed balance. They would have liked to drink another glass, equalize the other glasses. But all the doors were closed. So they had to do without, for better or for worse, and they did it by scolding the bad times. They decided to return home, the one from Ayent to Ayent and Pierre Bovier to Euseigne. “Where do you have your mule?” “There he is, next to yours.” The mules waited in the cool night. Swaying, the fathers (lads) gave each other their hands and then loosened their animals. It was no small thing for them to get on the saddle. After all, Ayent’s succeeded first, after some unsuccessful attempts. And the mule rode off with the hasty step of a hungry animal. Euseigne, for his part, managed to climb the animal after many attempts and violations of the second commandment. A lucky fool shortened the way home. Almost at the same time, the two companions felt their animals stop. We have arrived, said the mule’s frozen gestures. “Where am I,” stammered the one from Ayent, for he no longer knew his barn. “But I am in Ayent,” the one from Euseigne suddenly sobered. After they had confused the radical doctrine with the conservative, then their glasses, they had now also confused their mules. But the mules had not been wrong in their way home.
When I was growing up, my grandmother constantly reminded me of the importance of good manners. She would say, “You will never get anywhere of any consequence in this world without good manners!” And she would add, “Without good posture and proper dress, you won’t live long enough to enjoy it!” She made me read Emily Post’s Book of Etiquette from cover to cover. In retrospect, although reading the entire book was a real chore, the respect for good manners that she passed on to me has been an extremely valuable gem in my training experience with equines.
I think that the concept of combining equine training techniques with lessons in good manners is one that many people do not pay as much attention to these days as they probably should. Putting an equine in good posture with respect to his physical comfort is the most obvious form of good manners when communicating with your equine. When you apply the elements of good manners during the training process, you facilitate body and verbal language that equines really appreciate, and when you apply your own good manners and teach good manners to your equine from the very beginning of the training process, you can continue to move forward much more easily than if you do not incorporate good manners between you and your equine. When you run into resistance from your equine, take it as a red flag that you’re missing something in your communication with your animal and change your approach.
If your equine spends most of his time in the pasture, the good manners of promptness and reliability on your part are critical, as it is the only time you will have during the day to really spend time with him, and he’ll count on you to show up on time each day. What you’ll get out of being prompt at feeding times is a self-discipline that will carry over into everything that you do and will determine whether or not you are a reliable partner in the relationship with your equine. When you feed the oats mixture at night and none in the morning, it gives your equine a reason to come to you after breakfast when you offer oats to catch him, and gives him a reason to come back in off the pasture after being turned out for only a short time in the spring when pasture time needs to be limited. Doing something when it is convenient rather than considering the equine’s need for reliability in the trainer is a recipe for chaos and causes anxiety in both the equine and the trainer. However, having a predictable structure to your routine will allow both you and your equine to remain calm and clear in your communication with each other.
If you want your equine to come to you, rather than chasing him, simply stand at the gate or doorway and ask him to come to you, offering the oats reward when he does. If you are kind, patient and consistent, he will most likely always oblige you.
the others for standing back after you have rewarded the one you want for allowing you to halter him. This will also avoid anxiety in the one you are haltering, because he knows you will protect him and wave back the others who might otherwise crowd him or kick at him. The ones you wave back will learn that if they comply, a reward is coming.
Being in good posture feels good to all of us and allows all the organs in the body to work correctly. When one is comfortable and amply prepared for physical activity, it is always more enjoyable. This is no different for equines. When you don’t consistently pay attention to your own good posture, neither will your equine pay attention to his. His movements will tend to be difficult and unpleasant, and the relationship between the two of you may begin to erode. But when your equine is encouraged to be in good posture during training, it feels good to him and, over time, will become his normal way of moving and resting. He will also be grateful for your kindness and consideration, and he will look forward to the activities he gets to do and the time he spends with you. When you pay attention to your own good posture right from the beginning of leading training and every time you work with your equine, he will be able to mirror your good posture. The result will be his own good posture, which will result in more comfort for him.
There will be times when it is necessary to employ negative reinforcement to stop bad behaviors that can escalate and become truly dangerous behaviors before they become persistent and uncontrollable. These corrections, which are covered in DVD #2 of my 
At that time, cattle were the most important draft animals, less for meat production, and milk was also of little importance. Cattle were mainly used in agricultural traction work or heavy transports with wagons. Oxen were indispensable for long-distance transport. No person, no matter how much they preferred mules, camels or even elephants, could do without cattle. They were much less demanding of food and care than the sensitive horse, which was expensive to keep. The mule took a special position because of its outstanding qualities. Horses are hardly mentioned in the old writings as draft animals for heavier loads. Mostly, they were used for light wagons. Horses were the mount of the high-ranking men, both civilian and military, and also served as a pack animal.
Female animals were used primarily for pulling wagons because of their agility, while male mules were used to carry loads. Various documents show this division for different purposes. Emperor Serverus Alexander gave his provincial leaders six female mules, two male mules and two horses. It is obvious that the female mules were intended for specific use as draft animals, the male mules as pack animals and the horses for mounts. The female mules were reserved for pulling which is evident from the fact that they were normally traded as a team. If one had a flaw, the seller had to take back both animals. It was especially popular when all the animals in front of a cart had the same color. The veterinarians gave recipes for dyeing the hair of the draft animals when it was not appropriate. To make white hair black, three ‘scripula’ (Roman unit of weight) cobbler’s blacks, four ‘scripula’ oleander’s juice and some goat fat are mixed, crushed and then applied. To make black hair white, a pound of wild cucumber root and twelve ‘scripula’ soda are crushed into powder, a cup of honey added, and then applied.
Most mules were not used as valuable draft animals in private passenger transport, but in public transport by rental car companies or by cargo. The provisions of Codex Theodosianus (late antiquity collection of laws) the ‘cursus publicus’, can give an approximate impression. Two car types are mentioned, the four-wheeled ‘raeda’ and the two-wheeled ‘birota’. The ‘raeda’ was fitted with eight mules in summer and ten in winter, 1000 pounds could be carried. When used by people, this corresponded to seven to eight passengers. For the ‘birota’ on the other hand, three mules and a maximum load of 200 pounds were prescribed, for a person’s use, this was two passengers. 
The journey with such public transport was accompanied by wild screams, whip cracks from a drunken coachman and clouds of dust, reports a letter writer named Eustathios: A trip with mules that were boisterous by doing nothing and feeding too much he avoided – and prefered to walk.
Male mules were used to carry less extensive loads in cities and agriculture because of their greater strength. The typical work was the transport of pole wood for plantations. Traders kept their mules directly in their shops. There is a case described in the Digests (scripts of ancient legal scholars) where a horse was led into a shop and was sniffing at the mule there. It kicked and broke the back of the horse’s leader. In the troop, each centurion had one such pack mule, which had to carry the heavier parts of the equipment on the marches.
Mules were often used, as donkeys and horses were, to drive mills when they were no longer usable for other services. They were harnessed with a hard grass rope in front of the mill beam, the head was usually masked. They trotted in a furrow, always pushed by blows in the circle around. The bad condition of the animals corresponded to the gruelling work. In the “Methamorphoses”, Apuleius describes that the necks were swollen of wound rot, the nostrils were flaccid and dilated from coughing and dusty air. The body was disfigured by the constant blows and mange, the feet clumped by traveling permanently in a circle. These sufferings are also reflected in the veterinary writings, but the mill animals were certainly no longer treated.
The mule was used rarely for riding in Antiquity, it was the simpler mount. Horace (poet) illustrates a simple but also free life in this way: He could bridle a mule at any time and head all the way to Taranto, even if the loins of the animal were rubbed sore by the heavy coat bag and the sides by the weight of the rider. The veterinarians list these specific injuries caused by riding, as well as, by loads being too heavy. The wounds are treated with ointments mixed from salt, wine, oil, raisin wine, pork fat and onions. In more severe cases, blood is taken from the veins of the groin area and mixed with salt, pork fat and oil. This is applied, and if necessary, plastered with ointment. For wounded skin caused by pressures, a dough-like mixture made of fine wheat flour, incense dust, egg yolk and vinegar is applied to the sore spots.
Although mules were regarded by the church leaders as originating from an unnatural connection, and thus had a bad reputation, the mule nevertheless experienced a great appreciation in the early Middle Ages. Since Spanish mules are a noble gift, Emperor Charlemagne sent them to Caliph Harun Rashid. Mules and their Saracen guardians were bestowed by Robert Guiscard (Norman leader) to the Abbot of Montecassino. The mule is often mentioned as a mount of clergy. Gallus, for example, uses a mule for his journey to the Swabian ducal court. Also, for the journey of Goar (Priest, later holy spoken) to the royal court, a mule or a donkey is intended. Bishop Gregory of Tours, mentions mules among the farm animals of the monastery St. Martin, which were obviously riding animals. Because of the clergy’s preference for mules, the devil – as Notker (poet and scholar) tells us he turns into a mule to tempt the bishop to buy him, seduces him and kills him on the way out. A degree accordingly acts against the excessive dealing of clergy with mules. Of course, mules were often used as pack animals in the early Middle Ages, just like horses. Already Isidor from Sevilla (Archbishop) speaks about the ‘mulus sagmaria’ (Latin: pack mule) beside the ‘caballus sagmarius’ (packhorse). Some of the mules and horses with which the Irish bishop Marcus returned from his trip to Rome must have been pack animals as books, gold objects and robes are mentioned as transported goods. In the Vita Hludovici (anonymous biography of Louis the Pious) mules are also mentioned beside horses, working a mission as they transported ship parts through the woods. Mules are also considered a pack animal in custom regulations.